Section 3. Airport Operations
4-3-1. General
Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and
descent attitudes, and pilot preoccupation with
cockpit duties are some factors that increase the
hazardous accident potential near the airport. The
situation is further compounded when the weather is
marginal, that is, just meeting VFR requirements.
Pilots must be particularly alert when operating in the
vicinity of an airport. This section defines some rules,
practices, and procedures that pilots should be
familiar with and adhere to for safe airport operations.
4-3-2. Airports with an Operating Control
Tower
a. When operating at an airport where traffic
control is being exercised by a control tower, pilots
are required to maintain two-way radio contact with
the tower while operating within the Class B, Class C,
and Class D surface area unless the tower authorizes
otherwise. Initial callup should be made about
15 miles from the airport. Unless there is a good
reason to leave the tower frequency before exiting the
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas, it is a
good operating practice to remain on the tower
frequency for the purpose of receiving traffic
information. In the interest of reducing tower
frequency congestion, pilots are reminded that it is
not necessary to request permission to leave the tower
frequency once outside of Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface areas. Not all airports with an
operating control tower will have Class D airspace.
These airports do not have weather reporting which
is a requirement for surface based controlled
airspace, previously known as a control zone. The
controlled airspace over these airports will normally
begin at 700 feet or 1,200 feet above ground level and
can be determined from the visual aeronautical
charts. Pilots are expected to use good operating
practices and communicate with the control tower as
described in this section.
b. When necessary, the tower controller will issue
clearances or other information for aircraft to
generally follow the desired flight path (traffic
patterns) when flying in Class B, Class C, and Class D
surface areas and the proper taxi routes when
operating on the ground. If not otherwise authorized
or directed by the tower, pilots of fixed-wing aircraft
approaching to land must circle the airport to the left.
Pilots approaching to land in a helicopter must avoid
the flow of fixed-wing traffic. However, in all
instances, an appropriate clearance must be received
from the tower before landing.
FIG 4-3-1
Components of a Traffic Pattern
NOTE-
This diagram is intended only to illustrate terminology
used in identifying various components of a traffic pattern.
It should not be used as a reference or guide on how to enter
a traffic pattern.
c. The following terminology for the various
components of a traffic pattern has been adopted as
standard for use by control towers and pilots (See
FIG 4-3-1):
1. Upwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
landing runway in the direction of landing.
2. Crosswind leg. A flight path at right angles
to the landing runway off its takeoff end.
3. Downwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
landing runway in the opposite direction of landing.
4. Base leg. A flight path at right angles to the
landing runway off its approach end and extending
from the downwind leg to the intersection of the
extended runway centerline.
5. Final approach. A flight path in the
direction of landing along the extended runway
centerline from the base leg to the runway.
6. Departure leg. The flight path which begins
after takeoff and continues straight ahead along the
extended runway centerline. The departure climb
continues until reaching a point at least 1/2 mile
beyond the departure end of the runway and within
300 feet of the traffic pattern altitude.
d. Many towers are equipped with a tower radar
display. The radar uses are intended to enhance the
effectiveness and efficiency of the local control, or
tower, position. They are not intended to provide
radar services or benefits to pilots except as they may
accrue through a more efficient tower operation. The
four basic uses are:
1. To determine an aircraft's exact location.
This is accomplished by radar identifying the VFR
aircraft through any of the techniques available to a
radar position, such as having the aircraft squawk
ident. Once identified, the aircraft's position and
spatial relationship to other aircraft can be quickly
determined, and standard instructions regarding VFR
operation in Class B, Class C, and Class D surface
areas will be issued. Once initial radar identification
of a VFR aircraft has been established and the
appropriate instructions have been issued, radar
monitoring may be discontinued; the reason being
that the local controller's primary means of
surveillance in VFR conditions is visually scanning
the airport and local area.
2. To provide radar traffic advisories. Radar
traffic advisories may be provided to the extent that
the local controller is able to monitor the radar
display. Local control has primary control responsibilities to the aircraft operating on the runways, which
will normally supersede radar monitoring duties.
3. To provide a direction or suggested
heading. The local controller may provide pilots
flying VFR with generalized instructions which will
facilitate operations; e.g., “PROCEED SOUTHWESTBOUND, ENTER A RIGHT DOWNWIND
RUNWAY THREE ZERO,” or provide a suggested
heading to establish radar identification or as an
advisory aid to navigation; e.g., “SUGGESTED
HEADING TWO TWO ZERO, FOR RADAR
IDENTIFICATION.” In both cases, the instructions
are advisory aids to the pilot flying VFR and are not
radar vectors.
NOTE-
Pilots have complete discretion regarding acceptance of
the suggested headings or directions and have sole
responsibility for seeing and avoiding other aircraft.
4. To provide information and instructions to
aircraft operating within Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface areas. In an example of this
situation, the local controller would use the radar to
advise a pilot on an extended downwind when to turn
base leg.
NOTE-
The above tower radar applications are intended to
augment the standard functions of the local control
position. There is no controller requirement to maintain
constant radar identification. In fact, such a requirement
could compromise the local controller's ability to visually
scan the airport and local area to meet FAA responsibilities
to the aircraft operating on the runways and within the
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas. Normally,
pilots will not be advised of being in radar contact since
that continued status cannot be guaranteed and since the
purpose of the radar identification is not to establish a link
for the provision of radar services.
e. A few of the radar equipped towers are
authorized to use the radar to ensure separation
between aircraft in specific situations, while still
others may function as limited radar approach
controls. The various radar uses are strictly a function
of FAA operational need. The facilities may be
indistinguishable to pilots since they are all referred
to as tower and no publication lists the degree of radar
use. Therefore, when in communication with a
tower controller who may have radar available, do
not assume that constant radar monitoring and
complete ATC radar services are being provided.
4-3-3. Traffic Patterns
a. At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern
altitudes for propeller-driven aircraft generally
extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet above the
ground. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military
turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet
above the ground. Therefore, pilots of en route
aircraft should be constantly on the alert for other
aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas
whenever possible. Traffic pattern altitudes should be
maintained unless otherwise required by the
applicable distance from cloud criteria (14 CFR
Section 91.155). (See FIG 4-3-2 and FIG 4-3-3.)
b. Wind conditions affect all
airplanes in varying degrees. Figure 434 is an example
of a chart used to determine the headwind, crosswind, and tailwind components
based on wind direction and velocity relative to the runway. Pilots should
refer to similar information provided by the aircraft manufacturer when
determining these wind components.
FIG 4-3-2
Traffic Pattern Operations
Single Runway
EXAMPLE-
Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
FIG 4-3-3
Traffic Pattern Operations
Parallel Runways
EXAMPLE-
Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will
penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.
8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the
departure path of the parallel runway.
FIG 4-3-4
Headwind/Tailwind/Crosswind Component Calculator

4-3-4. Visual Indicators at Airports
Without an Operating Control Tower
a. At those airports without an operating control
tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if
installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern
information.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
b. The segmented circle system consists of the
following components:
1. The segmented circle. Located in a position
affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and
on the ground and providing a centralized location for
other elements of the system.
2. The wind direction indicator. A wind cone,
wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational
runway to indicate wind direction. The large end of
the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does
the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a
tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is
collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be
manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate
landing direction. These signaling devices may be
located in the center of the segmented circle and may
be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against
using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction.
3. The landing direction indicator. A tetrahedron is installed when conditions at the airport
warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction
of landings and takeoffs. A tetrahedron may be
located at the center of a segmented circle and may be
lighted for night operations. The small end of the
tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots
are cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any
purpose other than as an indicator of landing
direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution
when making runway selection by use of a
tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as
the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the
designated calm-wind runway. At airports with
control towers, the tetrahedron should only be
referenced when the control tower is not in operation.
Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indications.
4. Landing strip indicators. Installed in pairs
as shown in the segmented circle diagram and used to
show the alignment of landing strips.
5. Traffic pattern indicators. Arranged in
pairs in conjunction with landing strip indicators and
used to indicate the direction of turns when there is a
variation from the normal left traffic pattern. (If there
is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic
pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end
of the runway.)
c. Preparatory to landing at an airport without a
control tower, or when the control tower is not in
operation, pilots should concern themselves with the
indicator for the approach end of the runway to be
used. When approaching for landing, all turns must
be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator
indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the
pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the
runway to be used, the base and final approach legs
of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become
apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the
departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the
direction of turn after takeoff.
d. When two or more aircraft are approaching an
airport for the purpose of landing, the pilot of the
aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way
over the pilot of the aircraft at the higher altitude.
However, the pilot operating at the lower altitude
should not take advantage of another aircraft, which
is on final approach to land, by cutting in front of, or
overtaking that aircraft.
4-3-5. Unexpected Maneuvers in the
Airport Traffic Pattern
There have been several incidents in the vicinity of
controlled airports that were caused primarily by
aircraft executing unexpected maneuvers. ATC
service is based upon observed or known traffic and
airport conditions. Controllers establish the sequence
of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to
adjust flight as necessary to achieve proper spacing.
These adjustments can only be based on observed
traffic, accurate pilot reports, and anticipated aircraft
maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as to
preclude disrupting traffic flows or creating
conflicting patterns. The pilot-in-command of an
aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of the aircraft. On
occasion it may be necessary for pilots to maneuver
their aircraft to maintain spacing with the traffic they
have been sequenced to follow. The controller can
anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow “S”
turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a
major maneuver such as a 360 degree turn. If a pilot
makes a 360 degree turn after obtaining a landing
sequence, the result is usually a gap in the landing
interval and, more importantly, it causes a chain
reaction which may result in a conflict with following
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established
by the tower or approach controller. Should a pilot
decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain
spacing behind a preceding aircraft, the pilot should
always advise the controller if at all possible. Except
when requested by the controller or in emergency
situations, a 360 degree turn should never be executed
in the traffic pattern or when receiving radar service
without first advising the controller.
4-3-6. Use
of Runways/Declared Distances
a. Runways are identified by numbers
which indicate the nearest 10-degree increment of the azimuth of the runway
centerline. For example, where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the runway
designation would be 18; for a magnetic azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway
designation would be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5, such as
185, the runway designation could be either 18 or 19. Wind direction issued by
the tower is also magnetic and wind velocity is in knots.
b. Airport proprietors are responsible
for taking the lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly, they may
propose specific noise abatement plans to the FAA. If approved, these plans are
applied in the form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs for noise
abatement purposes.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- “Runway Use Program”
1. At airports where no runway use
program is established, ATC clearances may specify:
(a) The runway most nearly aligned
with the wind when it is 5 knots or more;
(b) The “calm wind” runway when wind
is less than 5 knots; or
(c) Another runway if operationally
advantageous.
NOTE-
It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire if the pilot will
use a specific runway or to offer a choice of runways. If a pilot prefers to use
a different runway from that specified, or the one most nearly aligned with the
wind, the pilot is expected to inform ATC accordingly.
2. At airports where a runway use
program is established, ATC will assign runways deemed to have the least noise
impact. If in the interest of safety a runway different from that specified is
preferred, the pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC will honor such
requests and advise pilots when the requested runway is noise sensitive. When
use of a runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot cooperation is
encouraged to preclude disruption of traffic flows or the creation of
conflicting patterns.
c. Declared Distances.
1. Declared distances for a runway
represent the maximum distances available and suitable for meeting takeoff and
landing distance performance requirements. These distances are determined in
accordance with FAA runway design standards by adding to the physical length of
paved runway any clearway or stopway and subtracting from that sum any lengths
necessary to obtain the standard runway safety areas, runway object free areas,
or runway protection zones. As a result of these additions and subtractions, the
declared distances for a runway may be more or less than the physical length of
the runway as depicted on aeronautical charts and related publications, or
available in electronic navigation databases provided by either the U.S.
Government or commercial companies.
2. All 14 CFR Part 139 airports report
declared distances for each runway. Other airports may also report declared
distances for a runway if necessary to meet runway design standards or to
indicate the presence of a clearway or stopway. Where reported, declared
distances for each runway end are published in the Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD). For runways without published declared distances, the declared distances
may be assumed to be equal to the physical length of the runway unless there is
a displaced landing threshold, in which case the Landing Distance Available
(LDA) is shortened by the amount of the threshold displacement.
NOTE-
A symbol
is
shown on U.S. Government charts to indicate that runway declared distance
information is available (See appropriate A/FD, Alaska, or Pacific Supplement).
(a) The FAA uses the following
definitions for runway declared distances (See FIG 4-3-5):
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Terms: “Accelerate-Stop Distance Available,” “Landing
Distance Available,” “Takeoff Distance Available,” “Takeoff Run Available,” ”
Stopway,” and “Clearway.”
(1) Takeoff Run Available (TORA) – The
runway length declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane
taking off.
The TORA is typically the physical length of
the runway, but it may be shorter than the runway length if necessary to satisfy
runway design standards. For example, the TORA may be shorter than the runway
length if a portion of the runway must be used to satisfy runway protection zone
requirements.
(2) Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)
– The takeoff run available plus the length of any remaining runway or clearway
beyond the far end of the takeoff run available.
The TODA is the distance declared available
for satisfying takeoff distance requirements for airplanes where the
certification and operating rules and available performance data allow for the
consideration of a clearway in takeoff performance computations.
NOTE-
The length of any available clearway will be included in the TODA published in
the A/FD's entry for that runway end.
(3) Accelerate-Stop Distance Available
(ASDA) – The runway plus stopway length declared available and suitable for the
acceleration and deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff.
The ASDA may be longer than the physical
length of the runway when a stopway has been designated available by the airport
operator, or it may be shorter than the physical length of the runway if
necessary to use a portion of the runway to satisfy runway design standards; for
example, where the airport operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the
runway safety area requirement. ASDA is the distance used to satisfy the
airplane accelerate-stop distance performance requirements where the
certification and operating rules require accelerate-stop distance computations.
NOTE-
The length of any available stopway will be included in the ASDA published in
the A/FD's entry for that runway end.
(4) Landing Distance Available (LDA) -
The runway length declared available and suitable for a landing airplane.
The LDA may be less than the physical length
of the runway or the length of the runway remaining beyond a displaced threshold
if necessary to satisfy runway design standards;for example, where the airport
operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the runway safety area
requirement.
Although some runway elements (such as
stopway length and clearway length) may be available information, pilots must
use the declared distances determined by the airport operator and not attempt to
independently calculate declared distances by adding those elements to the
reported physical length of the runway.
(b) The airplane operating rules
and/or the airplane operating limitations establish minimum distance
requirements for takeoff and landing and are based on performance data supplied
in the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook. The minimum
distances required for takeoff and landing obtained either in planning prior to
takeoff or in performance assessments conducted at the time of landing must fall
within the applicable declared distances before the pilot can
accept that runway for takeoff or landing.
(c) Runway design standards may impose
restrictions on the amount of runway available for use in takeoff and landing
that are not apparent from the reported physical length of the runway or from
runway markings and lighting. The runway elements of Runway Safety Area (RSA),
Runway Object Free Area (ROFA), and Runway Protection Zone (RPZ) may reduce a
runway's declared distances to less than the physical length of the runway at
geographically constrained airports (See FIG 4-3-6).
When considering the amount of runway available for use in takeoff or landing
performance calculations, the declared distances published for a runway must
always be used in lieu of the runway's physical length.
REFERENCE-
AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design.
(d) While some runway elements
associated with declared distances may be identifiable through runway markings
or lighting (for example, a displaced threshold or a stopway), the individual
declared distance limits are not marked or otherwise identified on the runway.
An aircraft is not prohibited from operating beyond a declared
distance limit during the takeoff, landing, or taxi operation provided the
runway surface is appropriately marked as usable runway (See
FIG 4-3-6). The following examples clarify the intent of this paragraph.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Runway Markings, Paragraph 2-3-3.
AC 150/5340-1, Standards for Airport Markings.
EXAMPLE-
1. The declared LDA for runway 9 must be used when showing
compliance with the landing distance requirements of the applicable airplane
operating rules and/or airplane operating limitations or when making a before
landing performance assessment. The LDA is less than the physical runway length,
not only because of the displaced threshold, but also because of the
subtractions necessary to meet the RSA beyond the far end of the runway.
However, during the actual landing operation, it is permissible for the airplane
to roll beyond the unmarked end of the LDA.
2. The declared ASDA for runway 9
must be used when showing compliance with the accelerate-stop distance
requirements of the applicable airplane operating rules and/or airplane
operating limitations. The ASDA is less than the physical length of the runway
due to subtractions necessary to achieve the full RSA requirement. However, in
the event of an aborted takeoff, it is permissible for the airplane to roll
beyond the unmarked end of the ASDA as it is brought to a full-stop on the
remaining usable runway.
FIG 4-3-5
Declared Distances with Full-Standard Runway Safety Areas, Runway Object Free
Areas, and Runway Protection Zones
FIG 4-3-6
Effects of a Geographical Constraint on a Runway's Declared Distances
NOTE-
A runway's RSA begins a set distance prior to the threshold and will extend a
set distance beyond the end of the runway depending on the runway's design
criteria. If these required lengths cannot be achieved, the ASDA and/or LDA will
be reduced as necessary to obtain the required lengths to the extent
practicable.
4-3-7. Low Level Wind
Shear/Microburst Detection Systems
Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather System Processor (WSP), and
Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS) display information on hazardous wind
shear and microburst activity in the vicinity of an airport to air traffic
controllers who relay this information to pilots.
a. LLWAS provides wind shear alert and
gust front information but does not provide microburst alerts. The LLWAS is
designed to detect low level wind shear conditions around the periphery of an
airport. It does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. Controllers will
provide this information to pilots by giving the pilot the airport wind followed
by the boundary wind.
EXAMPLE-
Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary wind 170 at 20.
b. LLWAS “network expansion,” (LLWAS
NE) and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS-RS) are systems integrated with
TDWR. These systems provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts and
wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the appropriate wind shear alerts or
microburst alerts. In some of these systems controllers also have the ability to
issue wind information oriented to the threshold or departure end of the runway.
EXAMPLE-
Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile final.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Microbursts, Paragraph 7-1-26.
c. More advanced systems are in the
field or being developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for microbursts,
wind shear, and significant thunderstorm activity. ITWS displays wind
information oriented to the threshold or departure end of the runway.
d. The WSP provides weather processor
enhancements to selected Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)-9 facilities. The WSP
provides Air Traffic with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such as
wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunderstorm activity. The WSP displays
terminal area 6 level weather, storm cell locations and movement, as well as the
location and predicted future position and intensity of wind shifts that may
affect airport operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts based on
Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An ARENA extends on the runway center line
from a 3 mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.
e. An airport equipped with the LLWAS,
ITWS, or WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory under Weather
Data Sources for that particular airport.
4-3-8. Braking Action Reports and Advisories
a. When available, ATC furnishes
pilots the quality of braking action received from pilots or airport management.
The quality of braking action is described by the terms “good,” “fair,” “poor,”
and “nil,” or a combination of these terms. When pilots report the quality of
braking action by using the terms noted above, they should use descriptive terms
that are easily understood, such as, “braking action poor the first/last half of
the runway,” together with the particular type of aircraft.
b. For NOTAM purposes, braking action
reports are classified according to the most critical term (“fair,” “poor,” or
“nil”) used and issued as a NOTAM(D).
c. When tower controllers have
received runway braking action reports which include the terms poor or
nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive to deteriorating or
rapidly changing runway braking conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
broadcast the statement, “BRAKING ACTION ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.”
d. During the time that braking action
advisories are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action report for
the runway in use to each arriving and departing aircraft. Pilots should be
prepared for deteriorating braking conditions and should request current runway
condition information if not volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be
prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition report to controllers after
landing.
4-3-9. Runway Friction Reports and
Advisories
a. Friction is defined as the ratio of
the tangential force needed to maintain uniform relative motion between two
contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the pavement surface) to the
perpendicular force holding them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the
aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies slipperiness of pavement
surfaces.
b. The greek
letter MU (pronounced “myew”), is used to designate a friction value
representing runway surface conditions.
c. MU (friction) values range from 0
to 100 where zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the maximum friction
value obtainable. For frozen contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of
40 or less is the level when the aircraft braking performance starts to
deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive. The lower the
MU value, the less effective braking performance becomes and the more difficult
directional control becomes.
d. At airports with friction measuring
devices, airport management should conduct friction measurements on runways
covered with compacted snow and/or ice.
1. Numerical readings may be obtained
by using any FAA approved friction measuring device. As these devices do not
provide equal numerical readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to
designate the type of friction measuring device used.
2. When the MU value for any one-third
zone of an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be given to ATC by
airport management for dissemination to pilots. The report will identify the
runway, the time of measurement, the type of friction measuring device used, MU
values for each zone, and the contaminant conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow,
slush, deicing chemicals, etc. Measurements for each one-third zone will be
given in the direction of takeoff and landing on the runway. A report should
also be given when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of a runway previously
reporting a MU below 40.
3. Airport management should initiate
a NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is out of service.
e. When MU reports are provided by
airport management, the ATC facility providing approach control or local airport
advisory will provide the report to any pilot upon request.
f. Pilots should use MU information
with other knowledge including aircraft performance characteristics, type, and
weight, previous experience, wind conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias
ply vs. radial constructed) to determine runway suitability.
g. No correlation has been established
between MU values and the descriptive terms “good,” “fair,” “poor,” and “nil”
used in braking action reports.
4-3-10. Intersection Takeoffs
a. In order to enhance airport
capacities, reduce taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and provide for
more efficient movement of air traffic, controllers may initiate intersection
takeoffs as well as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY reason a
pilot prefers to use a different intersection or the full length of the runway
or desires to obtain the distance between the intersection and the runway end,
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY.
b. Pilots are expected to assess the
suitability of an intersection for use at takeoff during their preflight
planning. They must consider the resultant length reduction to the published
runway length and to the published declared distances from the intersection
intended to be used for takeoff. The minimum runway required for takeoff must
fall within the reduced runway length and the reduced declared distances before
the intersection can be accepted for takeoff.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Use of Runways/Declared Distances, Paragraph 4-3-6.
c. Controllers will issue the measured
distance from the intersection to the runway end rounded “down” to the nearest
50 feet to any pilot who requests and to all military aircraft, unless use of
the intersection is covered in appropriate directives. Controllers, however,
will not be able to inform pilots of the distance from the intersection to the
end of any of the published declared distances.
REFERENCE-
FAAO JO 7110.65, Ground Traffic Movement, Paragraph 3-7-1.
d. An aircraft is expected to taxi to
(but not onto) the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval for an
intersection departure is received from ground control.
e. Pilots should state their position
on the airport when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway intersection.
EXAMPLE-
Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at the intersection of taxiway
Oscar and runway two three right, ready for departure.
f. Controllers
are required to separate small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less, maximum
certificated takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite direction) from an
intersection behind a large nonheavy aircraft on the same runway, by ensuring
that at least a 3-minute interval exists between the time the preceding large
aircraft has taken off and the succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To
inform the pilot of the required 3-minute hold, the controller will state, “Hold
for wake turbulence.” If after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot
feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot may request a waiver
to the 3-minute interval. To initiate such a request, simply say “Request waiver
to 3-minute interval,” or a similar statement. Controllers may then issue a
takeoff clearance if other traffic permits, since the pilot has accepted the
responsibility for wake turbulence separation.
g. The 3-minute interval is not
required when the intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure point of
the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are taking off in the same direction.
Controllers may permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff to avoid
the flight path of the preceding departure.
h. The 3-minute interval is mandatory
behind a heavy aircraft in all cases.
4-3-11. Pilot Responsibilities When
Conducting Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
a. LAHSO is an acronym for “Land and
Hold Short Operations.” These operations include landing and holding short of an
intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other
designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or
taxiway. (See FIG 4-3-7, FIG
4-3-8, FIG 4-3-9.)
b. Pilot Responsibilities and Basic
Procedures.
1. LAHSO is an air traffic control
procedure that requires pilot participation to balance the needs for increased
airport capacity and system efficiency, consistent with safety. This procedure
can be done safely provided pilots and controllers are knowledgeable and
understand their responsibilities. The following paragraphs outline specific
pilot/operator responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.
2. At controlled airports, air traffic
may clear a pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a clearance
provided that the pilot-in-command determines that the aircraft can safely land
and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD data are published in
the special notices section of the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and
in the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will
also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or pilots not familiar with
LAHSO should not participate in the program.
3. The pilot-in-command has the final
authority to accept or decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and
operation of the aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot. Pilots are
expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if they determine it will compromise
safety.
4. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should
become familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at their
destination airport. Pilots should have, readily available, the
published ALD and runway slope information for all LAHSO
runway combinations at each airport of intended landing. Additionally,
knowledge about landing performance data permits the pilot to readily
determine that the ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe LAHSO. As
part of a pilot's preflight planning process, pilots should determine if their
destination airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning process should
include an assessment of which LAHSO combinations would work for them given
their aircraft's required landing distance. Good pilot decision making is
knowing in advance whether one can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.
FIG 4-3-7
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway
EXAMPLE-
FIG 4-3-9 - holding short at a designated point may be
required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety area/flight path of a nearby
runway.
NOTE-
Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO markings, signage, and
in-pavement lighting when installed.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Chapter 2, Aeronautical Lighting and Other
Airport Visual Aids.
FIG
4-3-8
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway
FIG
4-3-9
Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point on a Runway Other Than an Intersecting
Runway or Taxiway
5. If, for any reason, such as
difficulty in discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection, wind conditions,
aircraft condition, etc., the pilot elects to request to land on the full length
of the runway, to land on another runway, or to decline LAHSO, a pilot is
expected to promptly inform air traffic, ideally even before the clearance is
issued. A LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be adhered to, just as any
other ATC clearance, unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency
occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing.
6. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO
clearance should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway
(unless directed otherwise) before reaching the hold short point. Otherwise, the
pilot must stop and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing
becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO clearance, the pilot should maintain
safe separation from other aircraft or vehicles, and should promptly notify the
controller.
7. Controllers need a full read back
of all LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their LAHSO clearance and
include the words, “HOLD SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT)” in their
acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In order to reduce frequency
congestion, pilots are encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance without
prompting. Don't make the controller have to ask for a read back!
c. LAHSO Situational
Awareness
1. Situational awareness is vital
to the success of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having current
airport information in the cockpit, readily accessible to the pilot. (An airport
diagram assists pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus
reducing requests for “progressive taxi instructions” from controllers.)
2. Situational awareness includes
effective pilot-controller radio communication. ATC expects pilots to
specifically acknowledge and read back all LAHSO clearances as follows:
EXAMPLE-
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold short of
taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft).”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six right to hold
short of taxiway bravo.”
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway bravo, landing
aircraft will hold short.”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at bravo, landing
traffic (type aircraft) to hold.”
3. For those airplanes flown with two
crewmembers, effective intra-cockpit communication between cockpit
crewmembers is also critical. There have been several instances where the pilot
working the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then simply forgot to tell the
pilot flying the aircraft.
4. Situational awareness also includes
a thorough understanding of the airport markings, signage, and lighting
associated with LAHSO. These visual aids consist of a three-part system of
yellow hold-short markings, red and white signage and, in certain cases,
in-pavement lighting. Visual aids assist the pilot in determining where to
hold short. FIG 4-3-7, FIG 4-3-8,
FIG 4-3-9 depict how these markings, signage, and
lighting combinations will appear once installed. Pilots are cautioned that not
all airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all of the above markings,
signage, or lighting.
5. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO
clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet and 3 statute miles
visibility. The intent of having “basic” VFR weather conditions is to allow
pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicle
operations. Pilots should consider the effects of prevailing inflight visibility
(such as landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall situational
awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles and aircraft being taxied by
maintenance personnel may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in those
operations that involve crossing an active runway.
4-3-12. Low Approach
a. A low approach (sometimes referred
to as a low pass) is the go-around maneuver following an approach. Instead of
landing or making a touch-and-go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach)
in order to expedite a particular operation (a series of practice instrument
approaches is an example of such an operation). Unless otherwise authorized by
ATC, the low approach should be made straight ahead, with no turns or climb made
until the pilot has made a thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area.
b. When operating within a Class B,
Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a low approach
should contact the tower for approval. This request should be made prior to
starting the final approach.
c. When operating to an airport, not
within a Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a
low approach should, prior to leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision
approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound
(precision approach), so advise the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as
appropriate.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers,
Paragraph 4-1-9.
4-3-13. Traffic
Control Light Signals
a. The following procedures are used
by ATCTs in the control of aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment, and personnel
not equipped with radio. These same procedures will be used to control aircraft,
ground vehicles, equipment, and personnel equipped with radio if radio contact
cannot be established. ATC personnel use a directive traffic control signal
which emits an intense narrow light beam of a selected color (either red, white,
or green) when controlling traffic by light signals.
b. Although the
traffic signal light offers the advantage that some control may be exercised
over nonradio equipped aircraft, pilots should be cognizant of the disadvantages
which are:
1. Pilots may not be looking at the
control tower at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft.
2. The directions transmitted by a
light signal are very limited since only approval or disapproval of a pilot's
anticipated actions may be transmitted. No supplement or explanatory information
may be transmitted except by the use of the “General Warning Signal” which
advises the pilot to be on the alert.
c. Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot
wishing to attract the attention of the control tower should turn on a landing
light and taxi the aircraft into a position, clear of the active runway, so that
light is visible to the tower. The landing light should remain on until
appropriate signals are received from the tower.
d. Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun
Signals. (See TBL 4-3-1.)
e. During daylight hours, acknowledge
tower transmissions or light signals by moving the ailerons or rudder. At night,
acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction
occurs after departing the parking area, watch the tower for light signals or
monitor tower frequency.
TBL 4-3-1
Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals
Meaning
|
Color and Type of Signal
|
Movement of Vehicles,
Equipment and Personnel
|
Aircraft on the Ground
|
Aircraft in Flight
|
Steady green
|
Cleared to cross, proceed or go
|
Cleared for takeoff
|
Cleared to land
|
Flashing green
|
Not applicable
|
Cleared for taxi
|
Return for landing (to be
followed by steady green at the
proper time)
|
Steady red
|
STOP
|
STOP
|
Give way to other aircraft and
continue circling
|
Flashing red
|
Clear the taxiway/runway
|
Taxi clear of the runway in use
|
Airport unsafe, do not land
|
Flashing white
|
Return to starting point on airport
|
Return to starting point on airport
|
Not applicable
|
Alternating red and green
|
Exercise extreme caution
|
Exercise extreme caution
|
Exercise extreme caution
|
4-3-14. Communications
a. Pilots of departing aircraft should
communicate with the control tower on the appropriate ground control/clearance
delivery frequency prior to starting engines to receive engine start time, taxi
and/or clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by the tower, remain on
that frequency during taxiing and runup, then change to local control frequency
when ready to request takeoff clearance.
NOTE-
Pilots are encouraged to monitor the local tower frequency as soon as practical
consistent with other ATC requirements.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), Paragraph 4-1-13.
b. The tower controller will consider
that pilots of turbine-powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when they reach
the runway or warm-up block unless advised otherwise.
c. The majority of ground control
frequencies are in the 121.6-121.9 MHz bandwidth. Ground control frequencies are
provided to eliminate frequency congestion on the tower (local control)
frequency and are limited to communications between the tower and aircraft on
the ground and between the tower and utility vehicles on the airport, provide a
clear VHF channel for arriving and departing aircraft. They are used for
issuance of taxi information, clearances, and other necessary contacts between
the tower and aircraft or other vehicles operated on the airport. A pilot who
has just landed should not change from the tower frequency to the ground control
frequency until directed to do so by the controller. Normally, only one ground
control frequency is assigned at an airport; however, at locations where the
amount of traffic so warrants, a second ground control frequency and/or another
frequency designated as a clearance delivery frequency, may be assigned.
d. A controller
may omit the ground or local control frequency if the controller believes the
pilot knows which frequency is in use. If the ground control frequency is in the
121 MHz bandwidth the controller may omit the numbers preceding the decimal
point; e.g., 121.7, “CONTACT GROUND POINT SEVEN.” However, if any doubt exists
as to what frequency is in use, the pilot should promptly request the controller
to provide that information.
e. Controllers will normally avoid
issuing a radio frequency change to helicopters, known to be single-piloted,
which are hovering, air taxiing, or flying near the ground. At times, it may be
necessary for pilots to alert ATC regarding single pilot operations to minimize
delay of essential ATC communications. Whenever possible, ATC instructions will
be relayed through the frequency being monitored until a frequency change can be
accomplished. You must promptly advise ATC if you are unable to comply with a
frequency change. Also, you should advise ATC if you must land to accomplish the
frequency change unless it is clear the landing will have no impact on other air
traffic; e.g., on a taxiway or in a helicopter operating area.
4-3-15. Gate
Holding Due to Departure Delays
a. Pilots should contact ground
control or clearance delivery prior to starting engines as gate hold procedures
will be in effect whenever departure delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed
15 minutes. The sequence for departure will be maintained in accordance with
initial call up unless modified by flow control restrictions. Pilots should
monitor the ground control or clearance delivery frequency for engine startup
advisories or new proposed start time if the delay changes.
b. The tower controller will consider
that pilots of turbine-powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when they reach
the runway or warm-up block unless advised otherwise.
4-3-16. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas
Use reasonable restraint in exercising the
prerogative of VFR flight, especially in terminal areas. The weather minimums
and distances from clouds are minimums. Giving yourself a greater margin in
specific instances is just good judgment.
a. Approach Area. Conducting a VFR
operation in a Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface area when the
official visibility is 3 or 4 miles is not prohibited, but good judgment would
dictate that you keep out of the approach area.
b. Reduced Visibility. It has always
been recognized that precipitation reduces forward visibility. Consequently,
although again it may be perfectly legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any
time you can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when precipitation is occurring,
to continue IFR operation into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to
your destination.
c. Simulated Instrument Flights. In
conducting simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather is good enough
to compensate for the restricted visibility of the safety pilot and your greater
concentration on your flight instruments. Give yourself a little greater margin
when your flight plan lies in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.
4-3-17. VFR Helicopter Operations at
Controlled Airports
a. General.
1. The following ATC procedures and
phraseologies recognize the unique capabilities of helicopters and were
developed to improve service to all users. Helicopter design characteristics and
user needs often require operations from movement areas and nonmovement areas
within the airport boundary. In order for ATC to properly apply these
procedures, it is essential that pilots familiarize themselves with the local
operations and make it known to controllers when additional instructions are
necessary.
2. Insofar as possible, helicopter
operations will be instructed to avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft to
minimize overall delays; however, there will be many situations where
faster/larger helicopters may be integrated with fixed-wing aircraft for the
benefit of all concerned. Examples would include IFR flights, avoidance of noise
sensitive areas, or use of runways/taxiways to minimize the hazardous effects of
rotor downwash in congested areas.
3. Because helicopter pilots are
intimately familiar with the effects of rotor downwash, they are best qualified
to determine if a given operation can be conducted safely. Accordingly, the
pilot has the final authority with respect to the specific airspeed/altitude
combinations. ATC clearances are in no way intended to place the helicopter in a
hazardous position. It is expected that pilots will advise ATC if a specific
clearance will cause undue hazards to persons or property.
b. Controllers
normally limit ATC ground service and instruction to movement areas;
therefore, operations from nonmovement areas are conducted at pilot
discretion and should be based on local policies, procedures, or letters of
agreement. In order to maximize the flexibility of helicopter operations, it is
necessary to rely heavily on sound pilot judgment. For example, hazards such as
debris, obstructions, vehicles, or personnel must be recognized by the pilot,
and action should be taken as necessary to avoid such hazards. Taxi, hover taxi,
and air taxi operations are considered to be ground movements. Helicopters
conducting such operations are expected to adhere to the same conditions,
requirements, and practices as apply to other ground taxiing and ATC procedures
in the AIM.
1. The phraseology taxi is used
when it is intended or expected that the helicopter will taxi on the airport
surface, either via taxiways or other prescribed routes. Taxi is used
primarily for helicopters equipped with wheels or in response to a pilot
request. Preference should be given to this procedure whenever it is necessary
to minimize effects of rotor downwash.
2. Pilots may request a hover taxi
when slow forward movement is desired or when it may be appropriate to move very
short distances. Pilots should avoid this procedure if rotor downwash is likely
to cause damage to parked aircraft or if blowing dust/snow could obscure
visibility. If it is necessary to operate above 25 feet AGL when hover taxiing,
the pilot should initiate a request to ATC.
3. Air taxi is the preferred
method for helicopter ground movements on airports provided ground operations
and conditions permit. Unless otherwise requested or instructed, pilots are
expected to remain below 100 feet AGL. However, if a higher than normal airspeed
or altitude is desired, the request should be made prior to lift-off. The pilot
is solely responsible for selecting a safe airspeed for the altitude/operation
being conducted. Use of air taxi enables the pilot to proceed at an
optimum airspeed/altitude, minimize downwash effect, conserve fuel, and expedite
movement from one point to another. Helicopters should avoid overflight of other
aircraft, vehicles, and personnel during air-taxi operations. Caution must be
exercised concerning active runways and pilots must be certain that air taxi
instructions are understood. Special precautions may be necessary at unfamiliar
airports or airports with multiple/intersecting active runways. The taxi
procedures given in Paragraph 4-3-18, Taxiing, Paragraph
4-3-19, Taxi During Low Visibility, and Paragraph
4-3-20, Exiting the Runway After Landing, also apply.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Hover Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Air Taxi.
c. Takeoff and Landing Procedures.
1. Helicopter operations may be
conducted from a runway, taxiway, portion of a landing strip, or any clear area
which could be used as a landing site such as the scene of an accident, a
construction site, or the roof of a building. The terms used to describe
designated areas from which helicopters operate are: movement area,
landing/takeoff area, apron/ramp, heliport and helipad (See Pilot/Controller
Glossary). These areas may be improved or unimproved and may be separate from or
located on an airport/heliport. ATC will issue takeoff clearances from
movement areas other than active runways, or in diverse directions from
active runways, with additional instructions as necessary. Whenever possible,
takeoff clearance will be issued in lieu of extended hover/air taxi operations.
Phraseology will be “CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF FROM (taxiway, helipad, runway number,
etc.), MAKE RIGHT/ LEFT TURN FOR (direction, heading, NAVAID radial)
DEPARTURE/DEPARTURE ROUTE (number, name, etc.).” Unless requested by the pilot,
downwind takeoffs will not be issued if the tailwind exceeds 5 knots.
2. Pilots should be alert to wind
information as well as to wind indications in the vicinity of the helicopter.
ATC should be advised of the intended method of departing. A pilot request to
takeoff in a given direction indicates that the pilot is willing to accept the
wind condition and controllers will honor the request if traffic permits.
Departure points could be a significant distance from the control tower and it
may be difficult or impossible for the controller to determine the helicopter's
relative position to the wind.
3. If takeoff is
requested from nonmovement areas, an area not authorized for helicopter
use, an area not visible from the tower, an unlighted area at night, or an area
off the airport, the phraseology “DEPARTURE FROM (requested location) WILL BE AT
YOUR OWN RISK (additional instructions, as necessary). USE CAUTION (if
applicable)." The pilot is responsible for operating in a safe manner and should
exercise due caution.
4. Similar phraseology is used for
helicopter landing operations. Every effort will be made to permit helicopters
to proceed direct and land as near as possible to their final destination on the
airport. Traffic density, the need for detailed taxiing instructions, frequency
congestion, or other factors may affect the extent to which service can be
expedited. As with ground movement operations, a high degree of pilot/controller
cooperation and communication is necessary to achieve safe and efficient
operations.
4-3-18. Taxiing
a. General. Approval must be obtained
prior to moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area during the hours
an Airport Traffic Control Tower is in operation.
1. Always state your position on the
airport when calling the tower for taxi instructions.
2. The movement area is normally
described in local bulletins issued by the airport manager or control tower.
These bulletins may be found in FSSs, fixed base operators offices, air carrier
offices, and operations offices.
3. The control tower also issues
bulletins describing areas where they cannot provide ATC service due to
nonvisibility or other reasons.
4. A clearance must be obtained prior
to taxiing on a runway, taking off, or landing during the hours an Airport
Traffic Control Tower is in operation.
5. A clearance must be obtained prior
to crossing any runway. ATC will issue an explicit clearance for all runway
crossings.
6. When assigned a takeoff runway, ATC
will first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and state any hold short
instructions or runway crossing clearances if the taxi route will cross a
runway. This does not authorize the aircraft to “enter” or “cross” the assigned
departure runway at any point. In order to preclude misunderstandings in radio
communications, ATC will not use the word “cleared” in conjunction with
authorization for aircraft to taxi.
7. When issuing taxi instructions to
any point other than an assigned takeoff runway, ATC will specify the point to
taxi to, issue taxi instructions, and state any hold short instructions or
runway crossing clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway.
NOTE-
ATC is required to obtain a readback from the pilot of all runway hold short
instructions.
8. If a pilot is expected to hold
short of a runway approach (“APPCH”) area or ILS holding position (see
FIG 2-3-15, Taxiways Located in Runway
Approach Area), ATC will issue instructions.
9. When taxi instructions are received
from the controller, pilots should always read back:
(a) The runway assignment.
(b) Any clearance to enter a specific
runway.
(c) Any instruction to hold short of a
specific runway or line up and wait.
Controllers are required to request a
readback of runway hold short assignment when it is not received from the
pilot/vehicle.
b. ATC clearances or instructions
pertaining to taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known physical airport
conditions. Therefore, it is important that pilots clearly understand the
clearance or instruction. Although an ATC clearance is issued for taxiing
purposes, when operating in accordance with the CFRs, it is the responsibility
of the pilot to avoid collision with other aircraft. Since “the pilot-in-command
of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to,
the operation of that aircraft” the pilot should obtain clarification of any
clearance or instruction which is not understood.
REFERENCE-
AIM, General, Paragraph 7-3-1.
1. Good operating practice dictates
that pilots acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or takeoff clearances
unless there is some misunderstanding, at which time the pilot should query the
controller until the clearance is understood.
NOTE-
Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot a readback of all
runway hold short instructions.
2. Pilots operating a single pilot
aircraft should monitor only assigned ATC communications after being cleared
onto the active runway for departure. Single pilot aircraft should not monitor
other than ATC communications until flight from Class B, Class C, or Class D
surface area is completed. This same procedure should be practiced from after
receipt of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi activities are
complete. Proper effective scanning for other aircraft, surface vehicles, or
other objects should be continuously exercised in all cases.
3. If the pilot is unfamiliar with the
airport or for any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi routing, a
request may be made for progressive taxi instructions which include step-by-step
routing directions. Progressive instructions may also be issued if the
controller deems it necessary due to traffic or field conditions (for example,
construction or closed taxiways).
c. At those airports where the U.S.
Government operates the control tower and ATC has authorized noncompliance with
the requirement for two-way radio communications while operating within the
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, or at those airports where the U.S.
Government does not operate the control tower and radio communications cannot be
established, pilots must obtain a clearance by visual light signal prior to
taxiing on a runway and prior to takeoff and landing.
d. The following phraseologies and
procedures are used in radiotelephone communications with aeronautical ground
stations.
1. Request for taxi instructions prior to
departure. State your aircraft identification, location, type of
operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the point of first intended landing.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: “Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner at
hangar eight, ready to taxi, I-F-R to Chicago.”
Tower: “Beechcraft one three one five niner, Washington ground, runway
two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and Delta, hold short of runway three three
left.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold short of runway
three three left.”
2. Receipt of ATC clearance. ARTCC
clearances are relayed to pilots by airport traffic controllers in the following
manner.
EXAMPLE-
Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago
Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago
Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand.”
NOTE-
Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by the ground controller.
At busy locations, however, pilots may be instructed by the ground controller to
“contact clearance delivery” on a frequency designated for this purpose. No
surveillance or control over the movement of traffic is exercised by this
position of operation.
3. Request for taxi instructions after
landing. State your aircraft identification, location, and that you request
taxi instructions.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: “Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six One clearing runway
one right on taxiway echo three, request clearance to Page.”
Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles ground, taxi to Page via
taxiways echo three, echo one, and echo niner.”
or
Aircraft: “Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six One clearing
runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three, request clearance to Page.”
Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando ground, hold short of
runway one eight right.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short of runway one
eight right.”
4-3-19. Taxi
During Low Visibility
a. Pilots and aircraft operators
should be constantly aware that during certain low visibility conditions the
movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may not be visible to the tower
controller. This may prevent visual confirmation of an aircraft's adherence to
taxi instructions.
b. Of vital
importance is the need for pilots to notify the controller when difficulties are
encountered or at the first indication of becoming disoriented. Pilots should
proceed with extreme caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision
difficulties are encountered pilots should immediately inform the controller.
c. Advisory Circular 120-57, Surface
Movement Guidance and Control System, commonly known as SMGCS (pronounced
“SMIGS”) requires a low visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff
or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR)
visibility conditions. These plans, which affect aircrew and vehicle operators,
may incorporate additional lighting, markings, and procedures to control airport
surface traffic. They will be addressed at two levels; operations less than
1,200 feet RVR to 600 feet RVR and operations less than 600 feet RVR.
NOTE-
Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be found in Paragraph 2-1-11,
Taxiway Lights, and Paragraph 2-3-4,
Taxiway Markings.
d. When low visibility conditions
exist, pilots should focus their entire attention on the safe operation of the
aircraft while it is moving. Checklists and nonessential communication should be
withheld until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set.
4-3-20. Exiting
the Runway After Landing
The following procedures must be followed
after landing and reaching taxi speed.
a. Exit the runway without
delay at the first available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by ATC.
Pilots must not exit the landing runway onto another runway unless authorized by
ATC. At airports with an operating control tower, pilots should not stop or
reverse course on the runway without first obtaining ATC approval.
b. Taxi clear of the runway
unless otherwise directed by ATC. An aircraft is considered clear of the runway
when all parts of the aircraft are past the runway edge and there are no
restrictions to its continued movement beyond the runway holding position
markings. In the absence of ATC instructions, the pilot is expected to taxi
clear of the landing runway by taxiing beyond the runway holding position
markings associated with the landing runway, even if that requires the aircraft
to protrude into or cross another taxiway or ramp area. Once all parts of the
aircraft have crossed the runway holding position markings, the pilot must hold
unless further instructions have been issued by ATC.
NOTE-
1. The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will permit
the aircraft to enter another taxiway, runway, or ramp area when required.
2. Guidance contained in
subparagraphs a
and b
above is considered an integral part of the landing clearance and satisfies the
requirement of 14 CFR Section 91.129.
c. Immediately change to ground
control frequency when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi clearance.
NOTE-
1. The tower will issue instructions required to resolve any
potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior to advising the pilot to
contact ground control.
2. Ground control will issue taxi
clearance to parking. That clearance does not authorize the aircraft to “enter”
or “cross” any runways. Pilots not familiar with the taxi route should request
specific taxi instructions from ATC.
4-3-21. Practice Instrument Approaches
a. Various air traffic incidents have
indicated the necessity for adoption of measures to achieve more organized and
controlled operations where practice instrument approaches are conducted.
Practice instrument approaches are considered to be instrument approaches made
by either a VFR aircraft not on an IFR flight plan or an aircraft on an IFR
flight plan. To achieve this and thereby enhance air safety, it is Air Traffic's
policy to provide for separation of such operations at locations where approach
control facilities are located and, as resources permit, at certain other
locations served by ARTCCs or parent approach control facilities. Pilot requests
to practice instrument approaches may be approved by ATC subject to traffic and
workload conditions. Pilots should anticipate that in some instances the
controller may find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw previous approval
when traffic conditions warrant. It must be clearly understood, however, that
even though the controller may be providing separation, pilots on VFR flight
plans are required to comply with basic VFR weather minimums (14 CFR
Section 91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any action taken by the
controller to avoid traffic conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of
their responsibility to see-and-avoid other traffic while operating in VFR
conditions (14 CFR Section 91.113). In addition to the normal IFR separation
minimums (which includes visual separation) during VFR conditions, 500 feet
vertical separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and between a VFR
aircraft and the IFR aircraft. Pilots not on IFR flight plans desiring practice
instrument approaches should always state `practice' when making requests to
ATC. Controllers will instruct VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to
maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings between the pilot and
controller as to the status of the aircraft. If pilots wish to proceed in
accordance with instrument flight rules, they must specifically request and
obtain, an IFR clearance.
b. Before
practicing an instrument approach, pilots should inform the approach control
facility or the tower of the type of practice approach they desire to make and
how they intend to terminate it, i.e., full-stop landing, touch-and-go, or
missed or low approach maneuver. This information may be furnished progressively
when conducting a series of approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have
made a series of instrument approaches to full stop landings should inform ATC
when they make their final landing. The controller will control flights
practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that they do not disrupt the
flow of arriving and departing itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority
afforded itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches is not intended
to be so rigidly applied that it causes grossly inefficient application of
services. A minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate to allow an
aircraft practicing an approach to complete that approach.
NOTE-
A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on the landing runway will
be ensured. A landing clearance does not relieve the pilot from compliance with
any previously issued restriction.
c. At airports without a tower, pilots
wishing to make practice instrument approaches should notify the facility having
control jurisdiction of the desired approach as indicated on the approach chart.
All approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required to publish a Letter to
Airmen depicting those airports where they provide standard separation to both
VFR and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument approaches.
d. The controller will provide
approved separation between both VFR and IFR aircraft when authorization is
granted to make practice approaches to airports where an approach control
facility is located and to certain other airports served by approach control or
an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation of VFR aircraft begins at the
point where the approach clearance becomes effective, or when the aircraft
enters Class B or Class C airspace, or a TRSA, whichever comes first.
e. VFR aircraft practicing instrument
approaches are not automatically authorized to execute the missed approach
procedure. This authorization must be specifically requested by the pilot and
approved by the controller. Separation will not be provided unless the missed
approach has been approved by ATC.
f. Except in an emergency, aircraft
cleared to practice instrument approaches must not deviate from the approved
procedure until cleared to do so by the controller.
g. At radar approach control locations
when a full approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.,) cannot be approved,
pilots should expect to be vectored to a final approach course for a practice
instrument approach which is compatible with the general direction of traffic at
that airport.
h. When granting approval for a
practice instrument approach, the controller will usually ask the pilot to
report to the tower prior to or over the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision
approaches) or over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker
inbound (precision approaches).
i. When authorization is granted to
conduct practice instrument approaches to an airport with a tower, but where
approved standard separation is not provided to aircraft conducting practice
instrument approaches, the tower will approve the practice approach, instruct
the aircraft to maintain VFR and issue traffic information, as required.
j. When an aircraft notifies a FSS
providing Local Airport Advisory to the airport concerned of the intent to
conduct a practice instrument approach and whether or not separation is to be
provided, the pilot will be instructed to contact the appropriate facility on a
specified frequency prior to initiating the approach. At airports where
separation is not provided, the FSS will acknowledge the message and issue known
traffic information but will neither approve or disapprove the approach.
k. Pilots
conducting practice instrument approaches should be particularly alert for other
aircraft operating in the local traffic pattern or in proximity to the airport.
4-3-22. Option Approach
The “Cleared for the Option” procedure will
permit an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to make a
touch-and-go, low approach, missed approach, stop-and-go, or full stop landing.
This procedure can be very beneficial in a training situation in that neither
the student pilot nor examinee would know what maneuver would be accomplished.
The pilot should make a request for this procedure passing the final approach
fix inbound on an instrument approach or entering downwind for a VFR traffic
pattern. The advantages of this procedure as a training aid are that it enables
an instructor or examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee or examinee under
changing conditions, the pilot would not have to discontinue an approach in the
middle of the procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency requirements,
and finally it allows more flexibility and economy in training programs. This
procedure will only be used at those locations with an operational control tower
and will be subject to ATC approval.
4-3-23. Use of Aircraft Lights
a. Aircraft position lights are
required to be lighted on aircraft operated on the surface and in flight from
sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft equipped with an anti-collision
light system are required to operate that light system during all types of
operations (day and night). However, during any adverse meteorological
conditions, the pilot-in-command may determine that the anti-collision lights
should be turned off when their light output would constitute a hazard to safety
(14 CFR Section 91.209). Supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on the
ground when they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in
flight when there are adverse reflection from clouds.
b. An aircraft anti-collision light
system can use one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be colored
either red or white, and have different (higher than minimum) intensities when
compared to other aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon and a
strobe light system.
c. The FAA has a voluntary pilot
safety program, Operation Lights On, to enhance the see-and-avoid
concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing lights during takeoff;
i.e., either after takeoff clearance has been received or when beginning takeoff
roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when
operating below 10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating within 10
miles of any airport, or in conditions of reduced visibility and in areas where
flocks of birds may be expected, i.e., coastal areas, lake areas, around refuse
dumps, etc. Although turning on aircraft lights does enhance the
see-and-avoid concept, pilots should not become complacent about keeping a
sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all aircraft are equipped with lights and
some pilots may not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufacturer's
recommendations for operation of landing lights and electrical systems should be
observed.
d. Prop and jet blast forces generated
by large aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller aircraft taxiing
behind them. To avoid similar results, and in the interest of preventing upsets
and injuries to ground personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends that air
carriers and commercial operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their
aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation pilots using rotating beacon
equipped aircraft are also encouraged to participate in this program which is
designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary
program, exercise caution and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an
indication that aircraft engines are in operation.
e. Prior to commencing taxi, it is
recommended to turn on navigation, position, anticollision, and logo lights (if
equipped). To signal intent to other pilots, consider turning on the taxi light
when the aircraft is moving or intending to move on the ground, and turning it
off when stopped or yielding to other ground traffic. Strobe lights should not
be illuminated during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of other
pilots or ground personnel.
f. At the discretion of the
pilotincommand, all exterior lights should be illuminated when taxiing on or
across any runway. This increases the conspicuousness of the aircraft to
controllers and other pilots approaching to land, taxiing, or crossing the
runway. Pilots should comply with any equipment operating limitations and
consider the effects of landing and strobe lights on other aircraft in their
vicinity.
g. When entering
the departure runway for takeoff or to “line up and wait,” all lights, except
for landing lights, should be illuminated to make the aircraft conspicuous to
ATC and other aircraft on approach. Landing lights should be turned on when
takeoff clearance is received or when commencing takeoff roll at an airport
without an operating control tower.
4-3-24. Flight Inspection/`Flight Check'
Aircraft in Terminal Areas
a. Flight check is a call sign
used to alert pilots and air traffic controllers when a FAA aircraft is engaged
in flight inspection/certification of NAVAIDs and flight procedures. Flight
check aircraft fly preplanned high/low altitude flight patterns such as grids,
orbits, DME arcs, and tracks, including low passes along the full length of the
runway to verify NAVAID performance.
b. Pilots should be especially
watchful and avoid the flight paths of any aircraft using the call sign “Flight
Check.” These flights will normally receive special handling from ATC. Pilot
patience and cooperation in allowing uninterrupted recordings can significantly
help expedite flight inspections, minimize costly, repetitive runs, and reduce
the burden on the U.S. taxpayer.
4-3-25. Hand Signals
FIG 4-3-10
Signalman Directs Towing

FIG 4-3-11
Signalman's Position

FIG 4-3-12
All Clear
(O.K.)
FIG 4-3-13
Start Engine
FIG 4-3-14
Pull Chocks
FIG 4-3-15
Proceed Straight Ahead
FIG 4-3-16
Left Turn
FIG 4-3-17
Right Turn
FIG 4-3-19
Flagman Directs Pilot
FIG 4-3-21
Cut Engines
FIG 4-3-22
Night Operation
FIG 4-3-23
Stop
4-3-26. Operations at Uncontrolled Airports
With Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor
System(AWSS)/Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)
a. Many airports throughout the
National Airspace System are equipped with either ASOS, AWSS, or AWOS. At most
airports with an operating control tower or human observer, the weather will be
available to you in an Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) hourly or special
observation format on the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or
directly transmitted from the controller/observer.
b. At uncontrolled airports that are
equipped with ASOS/AWSS/AWOS with ground-to-air broadcast capability, the
one-minute updated airport weather should be available to you within
approximately 25 NM of the airport below 10,000 feet. The frequency for the
weather broadcast will be published on sectional charts and in the
Airport/Facility Directory. Some part-time towered airports may also broadcast
the automated weather on their ATIS frequency during the hours that the tower is
closed.
c. Controllers issue SVFR or IFR
clearances based on pilot request, known traffic and reported weather, i.e.,
METAR/Nonroutine (Special) Aviation Weather Report (SPECI) observations, when
they are available. Pilots have access to more current weather at uncontrolled
ASOS/AWSS/AWOS airports than do the controllers who may be located several miles
away. Controllers will rely on the pilot to determine the current airport
weather from the ASOS/AWSS/AWOS. All aircraft arriving or departing an
ASOS/AWSS/AWOS equipped uncontrolled airport should monitor the airport weather
frequency to ascertain the status of the airspace. Pilots in Class E airspace
must be alert for changing weather conditions which may effect the status of the
airspace from IFR/VFR. If ATC service is required for IFR/SVFR
approach/departure or requested for VFR service, the pilot should advise the
controller that he/she has received the one-minute weather and state his/her
intentions.
EXAMPLE-
“I have the (airport) one-minute weather, request an ILS Runway 14 approach.”
REFERENCE-
AIM, Weather Observing Programs, Paragraph 7-1-12.
|