FAA Office of Aerospace Medicine 
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

Report No: DOT/FAA/AM-26/26

Title and Subtitle: Human Factors and Safety Considerations for Automatic Takeoff Capabilities and Operations in General Aviation Aircraft: A Review of the Literature

Report Date: October 2026

Authors: Kelene A Fercho, David C. Newton

Abstract:
Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this report identified and synthesized 14 studies (1999–2023) on automatic takeoff systems and human factors issues for fixed-wing General Aviation (GA) aircraft and Optionally Piloted Vehicles (OPVs). Across the reviewed literature, automatic takeoff followed a four-stage operational sequence—pilot engagement of system, automatic centerline tracking and energy management, rotation, and climb to 500 ft above ground level (AGL)—where authority transitions to a conventional autopilot. Pilot involvement across this sequence depended on system architecture: full-authority Fly-by-Wire designs automated all flight controls paired with pilot supervision, whereas limited-authority retrofits required pilots to retain manual control of certain inputs, such as ground steering, throttle management, and mechanical clutch disengagement. This shift from active flying to supervisory monitoring introduces human performance risks, including vigilance decrements, mode confusion, and delayed response to off-nominal events. This safety risk during the takeoff phase of flight is highest during high-speed Rejected Takeoffs (RTO), where current GA prototypes rely on manual pilot intervention—such as retarding throttles or pressing stick disconnects—rather than automated RTO execution. To mitigate this hazard, simulator and flight test data demonstrate that directive warnings ("CONTINUE/REJECT") messages shorten pilot decision latency compared to non-directive warnings (“Engine Failure”), provided the display communicates the real-time rationale for the alert. Future research should evaluate automatic takeoff capabilities under a wider variety of operational conditions to better characterize pilot workload, monitoring vigilance, mode awareness, display interpretability, and flight safety during non-normal operations.

Key Words: Aircraft, Automated System, Automation, Automatic Takeoff, Autopilot, Concept of Operations, Decision Support Systems, Flight Deck, General Aviation, Human Factors, Human-Machine Interface, Operational Suitability, Optionally Piloted Vehicle, Partial Automation, Rejected Takeoff, Supervisory Control

No. of Pages: 34